Introduction
Dance, as a product of culture and philosophy, showcases the differing understandings and pursuits of "beauty" within the distinct cultural contexts of the East and West. In the 18th century, Europe began engaging in small-scale trade with China, India, and Turkey, introducing cultural artifacts from regions like China and Oceania to European high society. Meanwhile, during the Tang Dynasty, China absorbed various foreign cultures via the Silk Road, including influences from India, Korea, and regions around Tashkent in present-day Uzbekistan.
The ballet of 18th-century Europe and the dance of China's Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) are pivotal periods in the dance histories of the West and East, respectively. Despite being from different eras and differing in expressive forms, they share several similarities. Moreover, the audiences for these dances belonged to different social classes. Comparing 18th-century ballet with Tang Dynasty dance offers insights into the aesthetic differences in Western and Eastern dance, as well as the aesthetic principles underpinning each culture, thereby enriching the overall understanding of "beauty."
Importantly, deeper studies into dance across different times and cultural backgrounds reveal that despite differences in aesthetic preferences and expressive forms, their core essence shows consistency and striking similarities in several aspects. Such comparative research not only enhances the understanding of dance as an art form but also provides new perspectives on cultural exchange and artistic development.
Historical and Cultural Background
- Historical and Cultural Background of 18th Century Ballet
The 18th century was an important transitional period in the history of ballet. At the end of the 17th century, King Louis XIV of France founded the Royal Academy of Music and the Royal Academy of Dance. These institutions helped standardize and refine ballet training and performance to a large degree. In the 18th century, capitalism on the rise strived to steer ballet in a direction that conformed more to the contemporary tastes. Despite great developments in the European capitalist economy, feudal regimes had yet to be dismantled. At the same time, the Enlightenment movement played an important role for advocating ration, science, and equality. Thus, ballet during this time transformed from conservatism to innovation.
- Historical and Cultural Background of Tang Dynasty Dance
The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous era in China. The artistic accumulation from previous eras (the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties), combined with the cultural communications through the Silk Road, allowed China to learn from a wealth of foreign cultures, especially dances and music. These combined to enrich the local dance forms. As a result, the artistic development of Chinese dance reached a peak during this period. Dancing became a common social activity involving both the nobility and the common people. This led to rich expressions of different styles and a variety of dances, including court dances, folk dances, and religious dances. What’s more, Tang Dynasty Dance was deeply influenced by the philosophical thoughts of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. Confucianism emphasized Li (“礼”), which literally translates to “rituals” and stands for etiquette and rites; Daoism viewed nature as the highest beauty and stressed the idea of WuWei ("无为”), which means non-interference and going with the flow; while Zen Buddhist thoughts focused on subtlety and depth, trying to express the atmosphere of Kong ("空”, emptiness), Xu ("虚”, void), and Jing ("静”, tranquillity).
Similarities
- Functionality and Rituality
In both eras, dancing was not just a form of entertainment but also served as a means of education. Originally mainly performed in court, ballet gradually entered public theaters since the 18th century, taking on the responsibility of moral education for the general public. Dancers express vivid emotions through the narrative dancing performance, allowing audiences to enjoy the art and at the same time gain emotional resonance and moral insights. Similarly, Tang Dynasty Dance played diverse roles in social lives, especially in religious and celebratory events. Dancing became a promotion of social harmony and higher spiritual pursuits. In religious rituals, dancers exhibited reverence towards deities through their graceful movements. During national celebrations, dancing became an important way of celebrating prosperity and unity, embodying societal joy and beautiful visions.
The ritualistic aspects of both dance forms also show similarities. In 18th century ballet, particularly in court performances represented by the Paris Opera, strict choreography and standardized steps reflected the importance placed on etiquette at the time. Each ballet performance was not just a display of technique, but also a symbol of power and prestige. In this vein, dance became a ritual that reinforced the social status and cultural identity of the noble class. The same profound ritualistic element was found in Tang Dynasty Dance. In royal banquets and religious ceremonies, dance performance was often regarded as a vital part of the rituals, conveying respect for authority, deities, and social order. Dancers, through elegant movements and splendid costumes, embodied the prestige and cultural confidence of the state, expressing a sense of harmony and solemnity.
- Music and Emotion
In the 18th century, ballet gradually moved away from its dependence on opera and evolved into an independent performing art. At this time, music became a crucial component of the dance performance. Dancers became not only the performers of the choreography but also the emotional interpreters of the music. Marie Sallé introduced the concept of “ballet d'action,” emphasizing that dance should convey emotion through movement. Later, Jean-Georges Noverre further developed this idea, asserting that dancing should be narrative in nature, with each movement expressing the innermost emotions of the characters. Also, Noverre’s concept of “dramatic ballet” highlighted the interaction between dance and music, where dancers’ movements often echoed the emotional climaxes of the music. This close coordination of dance and music established a strong emotional resonance between dancers and the audience, strengthening the expressiveness of the dance. This development also laid a solid foundation for the Romantic ballet of the 1820s, driving the development of dance as a narrative art form.
Similarly, in China, the Tang Dynasty Dance exhibited a strong connection between music and dancing movements. Tang Dynasty Dancing were mainly accompanied by music played by traditional Chinese instruments, such as Di ("笛”, flute), Sheng (“笙”), Pipa (“琵琶”), and Zheng (“筝”). The melodies and rhythms of these instruments added depth to the emotional expression of the dance. In choreographing the dances, choreographers paid close attention to changes in the music, ensuring that dancers could adapt their movements in harmony with the fluctuations of the music. For example, in classic works like Rainbow Skirt Feathered Dress Dance ("霓裳羽衣曲”), dancers enhanced their dynamic movements, incorporating more jumps and spins to align with the passionate and uplifting music, conveying passion and vitality. Conversely, in more gentle melodies, dancers expressed the subtlety of emotions through delicate dance movements.
- Dance notation, the backgrounds of dancers, and the influence of aristocratic and scholar-official classes
In 1701, Raoul Feuillet published "Recueil de figures," the first systematic encyclopedia of ballet. Feuillet attempted to record dance movements using symbols and lines, including curves and straight lines. This method was historically significant and can be seen as the origin of later dance notation systems. (Zhu Liren, "Outline of Western Ballet History")
During the Tang Dynasty, similar dance notation existed with two main recording methods. One involved sketches of dance formations, paths, and simple postures or movements. The other used written records, such as the dance notation found in Dunhuang manuscripts, including items numbered S.785 and S.5613, now housed in the British Museum. (Wang Kexin, "History of Ancient Chinese Dance")
It is worth noting that both 18th-century ballet and Tang Dynasty dance were promoted by the aristocracy and the scholar-official class, often referred to as the royal court and literati in China. Meanwhile, many ballet dancers in the 18th century and female dancers of the Tang Dynasty generally came from humble backgrounds. They gained recognition and social mobility through their dance skills. For example, Marie Camargo in the 18th century and Xie Amman of the Tang Dynasty both achieved fame and opportunity through their dance talents.
By comparing 18th-century European ballet and Tang Dynasty dance in China, we can see that dance played an important role in educating society during these periods. It was not only entertainment but also a way to convey morals and spiritual values. The ceremonial aspects of both styles highlight the similarity in social values. Ballet emphasized rules and etiquette, which were reflected in performances, while Tang dance showed respect for authority and social order, demonstrating cultural confidence.
Additionally, music and dance were closely linked in both traditions, with rich musical forms enhancing emotional expression. The records of dance notation, such as Feuillet’s "Recueil de figures" and the Dunhuang manuscripts, show that dance art gradually developed into a systematic theory and practice, laying a foundation for future development.
Finally, the social backgrounds and careers of ballet dancers and Tang female dancers also reflect the complex interaction between art and social class.
Differences
- Cultural Background and Philosophical Foundation
The aesthetics of 18th century ballet were influenced by both Classicism and the Enlightenment movement. Enlightenment thinkers criticized the opulence and superficiality of court ballet. They believed that “art should imitate nature” and that “everything created freely is correct.” Their thoughts influenced the dance artists at the time. During this period, Europe experienced dramatic social upheaval. Before, ballet was a symbol of noble power within royal courts. However, with the rise of Enlightenment ideals, ballet gradually extended into public theaters, which can be seen as a representation of the emergence of popular culture. Enlightenment philosophers promoted a realistic style of performance, emphasizing the understanding of the world through reason, science, and equality. For instance, Jean Dauberval ’s La Fille mal gardée（The Wayward Daughter） tells the story of a young couple in love, reflecting themes of marital freedom and opposition to class distinctions.
In contrast to the pursuit of individualism and rationalism through ballet, the cultural background and philosophical foundations of Tang Dynasty Dance were influenced by Confucian and Daoist thought, which emphasized harmony between humanity, nature, and society. Daoist philosophy advocated for “following the way of nature,” promoting adherence to natural laws. This philosophy was integrated into dancing, resulting in movements that were flexible and smooth, showcasing the beauty of harmonious coexistence with nature. In addition, Confucian culture emphasized etiquette and social responsibilities, making dance less of a personal artistic expression but more of a reflection of social ethics and values, underscoring the pursuit of a harmonious family and society.
- Dance Movements and Forms
In 18th century Europe, ballet developed artistic characteristics that emphasized verticality, symmetry, and standardization. The movements became highly formalized, requiring dancers to undergo extensive professional training to meet technical standards and precision. For example, the gentle extension of the arms, outwardly positioned feet, and upright posture combined to form a dance aesthetic that emphasizes graceful lines and precise movements. The importance of reason and order in the Enlightenment was similarly expressed through ballet dancing at the time.
In contrast to the standardization of ballet, the styles of the Tang Dynasty Dance were diverse and rich. The “performative dance,” for example, classified dances into feminine and masculine types, referred to as “soft dances” and “energetic dances.” “Strong dances” was characterized by agility, speed, and power, while “soft dances” displayed elegance and tenderness. Moreover, the distinction between soft and strong was ambiguous. The ancient Chinese artistic philosophy advocated for a most desirable art form that incorporates both soft and strong to form a harmonious whole. Overall, the movements and postures in Tang Dynasty Dance were fluid, and dynamic.
- Costumes and Stage Design
The costumes of 18th century ballet underwent significant changes. Wigs and whale-bone skirts were discarded. Skirts became lighter and gradually shorter, wing dalloancers to perform more difficult jumps and leg movements. Also, high-heeled ballet shoes were increasingly replaced by flat soft shoes. To meet technical requirements, Noverre advocated for the abandonment of high heels that hindered dancers' performance. The benefits were demonstrated by increasingly technically skilled ballet stars like Marie Camargo.
In terms of stage design, 18th century ballet often featured backdrops depicting mythological scenes or natural landscapes. The stage design was integrated with the theme of the performance, creating a more coherent performance and a more immersive experience for the audience. It is noteworthy that Charles Diddon invented a locking mechanism in his work "Flora and the West Wind," resembling modern wire and cable techniques in 1796. With the help of the new technique, dancers could touch the ground lightly with their toes as if they were flying. This innovation had a profound impact on the development of pointe shoes in later years.
Tang Dynasty Dance costumes were varied and colorful. The characteristic tradition Chinese attire, featuring broad collars, high waistlines, flared shoulders, and oversized silhouettes, represented the aesthetic and lifestyle of that era. From historical textual records and unearthed relics showing Tang Dynasty figurines of female dancers, we can appreciate the graceful and natural qualities reflected in the dance costumes. Female dancers typically wore flowing long skirts made of lightweight silk, with wide sleeves adorned with patterns and embroidery. The costumes varied significantly between dance styles. For example, soft dance costumes often featured large sleeves, while strong dance costumes tended to have smaller sleeves. Overall, Tang costumes emphasized dynamic beauty, helping to create a light and agile impression during the performances.
Tang Dynasty Dance, typically performed in royal courts or religious temples, also prioritized creating engaging stage designs. Backdrops usually included curtains or large screens embroidered with floral and bird motifs. In formal dance occasions, the accompanying music and percussion also played a crucial role in enhancing the visual impact of the performances, creating festive or solemn atmospheres.
In summary, 18th-century European ballet and Tang Dynasty dance in China demonstrated different aesthetic expressions in movement and costume design, each rooted in their unique backgrounds and philosophical principles. Under the influence of classicism and the Enlightenment, ballet emphasized verticality, symmetry, and standardization, with costumes and stage design evolving from luxurious court styles to more realistic forms. In contrast, Tang dance incorporated Confucian and Daoist ideas, highlighting harmony between humans, nature, and society. Its movements were lively, costumes colorful, and rich with traditional aesthetic features, while stage design focused on creating atmosphere to reflect social ethics and cultural values.
Despite their differences, both dance styles are deeply rooted in their respective social and philosophical contexts. Ballet’s rational pursuit and Tang dance’s humanistic spirit each mirror the aesthetic and values of their times, serving as artistic expressions that connect cultural and philosophical ideals.
Conclusion
By comparing and analyzing 18th-century European ballet and Tang Dynasty dance in China, we explored their similarities and differences in culture, history, aesthetics, and functions. Although these two forms of dance have distinct performance styles and cultural backgrounds, their core essence shows many similarities. Both ballet and Tang dance share features such as their functional and ceremonial roles, the integration of music and emotion, and the early development of dance notation. Additionally, performers in both traditions often came from similar social backgrounds, and their dissemination and development were supported by aristocratic and scholarly classes.
Putting these two dance forms side by side not only enriches our understanding of beauty but also reveals that, despite existing in different eras and cultures, human ideas and perceptions of dance show a certain level of consistency. This emphasizes dance as an important medium for cross-cultural communication.
Dance as body language is more than just sequences of movements; it is a way for us to understand the world and space. It reflects humanity’s various pursuits of beauty across time and space and serves as a bridge from regional expressions to global understanding. Through this study, we gain a deeper insight into the multiple dimensions of dance and its expression within different cultural contexts.
Reference：
Zhu, L. R. (2001). A general history of Western ballet. Shanghai Music Publishing House.
Yuan, H. (2004). A tutorial on the history of ancient Chinese dance. Shanghai Music Publishing House.
Chen, J. N. (2015). Art overview. Beijing: China Film Publishing House.
Winter, M.H. (1974). The Pre-Romantic Ballet. London: Pitman.
Noverre, J. G. (1983). Dance and letters. Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House.
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